Small Animal Medicine

By the end of this module, the learner will be able to: 

• Define clinical reasoning and explain its fundamental role in everyday veterinary practice. 
• Distinguish between Type 1 (intuitive) and Type 2 (analytical) thinking, and describe when each is typically engaged in clinical decision-making. 
• Identify the most common cognitive biases in veterinary medicine and explain how they can distort clinical judgement. 
• Apply practical strategies to mitigate cognitive biases and interrupt flawed automatic reasoning during consultations. 
• Describe the nature and causes of clinical errors and articulate how they can be used constructively as learning opportunities. 
• Use the Problem-Oriented Medical (POM) approach to systematically identify, assess, and manage multiple concurrent clinical issues. 
• Structure clinical cases using the SOAP format to enhance reasoning clarity, communication, and continuity of care. 
• Conduct a cognitive autopsy of a clinical case to identify key reasoning failures and propose alternative approaches. 
• Integrate structured decision-making tools such as checklists and cognitive pauses into routine practice to enhance diagnostic accuracy. 
• Reflect on their own clinical decisions and demonstrate awareness of uncertainty as a natural and manageable element of veterinary care. 

By the end of this module, the learner will be able to: 

• Justify the appropriate selection of diagnostic tests based on clinical context and patient presentation. 
• Perform and interpret blood smears, recognising normal findings, common artefacts, and pathological changes. 
• Evaluate cytological samples from masses, joints, body cavities, urine, and ear canals to distinguish inflammatory, infectious, and neoplastic processes. 
• Identify limitations in cytological interpretation and determine when further diagnostics, such as biopsies, are indicated. 
• Conduct proper sampling and submission for microbiological culture to maximise diagnostic accuracy and minimise contamination. 
• Interpret culture and sensitivity results critically, integrating them into rational antimicrobial therapy and One Health principles. 
• Demonstrate the technical and interpretive skills required to obtain and analyse thoracic and abdominal radiographs and point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS). 
• Recognise key ECG patterns and artefacts, and identify when ECG findings warrant clinical intervention. 
• Apply safe and effective techniques for placement and management of feeding tubes (NG, NE, oesophagostomy), including nutritional planning. 
• Integrate clinical nutrition into case management, including assessment of caloric needs, dietary selection, and management of obesity. 

By the end of this module, the learner will be able to:

• Differentiate vomiting from regurgitation in dogs and cats based on clinical history, physical examination, and diagnostic testing. 
• Generate a prioritised differential diagnosis list for acute vomiting, incorporating patient signalment and clinical features. 
• Formulate a structured diagnostic and management plan for patients presenting with vomiting, considering both outpatient and hospital-based approaches. 
• Interpret haematological and biochemical abnormalities in the context of vomiting and use them to refine diagnostic hypotheses. 
• Identify common causes of gastric ulceration in small animals and design appropriate treatment protocols. 
• Explain the pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and management strategies for acute and chronic pancreatitis. 
• Evaluate the role of abdominal point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) in the assessment of vomiting patients, including its indications and limitations. 
• Recognise clinical signs suggestive of toxicological exposure and select appropriate diagnostics to confirm or exclude toxicity as a differential. 
• Devise an evidence-based treatment plan for common toxin ingestions in dogs and cats, considering stabilisation and specific antidotes where applicable. 
• Identify when vomiting may be a manifestation of systemic disease (e.g., Addisonian crisis) and adjust diagnostic priorities accordingly. 

By the end of this module, the learner will be able to: 

• Distinguish between small and large intestinal diarrhoea based on clinical signs, physical examination, and diagnostic findings. 
• Generate differential diagnoses for acute diarrhoea in dogs and cats, categorising by anatomical localisation and disease mechanism. 
• Explain the pathophysiology and clinical implications of chronic enteropathy and dysbiosis, and outline evidence-based therapeutic options. 
• Formulate a stepwise diagnostic and treatment plan for acute and chronic diarrhoea, adapting to case complexity and resource availability. 
• Interpret gastrointestinal-specific biomarker and serological tests, and assess their utility in clinical decision-making. 
• Describe common pharmacological agents used in gastrointestinal disease, including mechanisms of action, indications, and side effects. 
• Evaluate parasitological and bacteriological faecal findings and integrate them into appropriate treatment decisions. 
• Develop treatment plans for protozoal infections such as Giardia and Tritrichomonas in cats and dogs. 
• Incorporate nutritional strategies into the management of patients with diarrhoea, including diet selection and feeding approaches. 
• Identify when diarrhoea may be secondary to extra-intestinal diseases and adjust the diagnostic strategy accordingly. 

By the end of this module, the learner will be able to: 

• Formulate a structured diagnostic plan for dogs and cats presenting with polyuria and polydipsia, including appropriate prioritisation of differential diagnoses. 
• Interpret the results of diagnostic tests used in the evaluation of polyuria and polydipsia, including urinalysis, serum biochemistry, and endocrine assays. 
• Compare the clinical presentation and pathophysiology of diabetes mellitus in dogs and cats and discuss implications for management. 
• Develop a comprehensive treatment and monitoring plan for patients diagnosed with diabetes mellitus, including insulin therapy and dietary modification. 
• Recognise the clinical signs of diabetic ketoacidosis and outline an emergency stabilisation and treatment protocol. 
• Describe the clinical presentation and initial management of hyperosmolar hyperglycaemic states in small animals. 
• Interpret test results and clinical features used in the diagnosis of hyperadrenocorticism and compare diagnostic strategies. 
• Evaluate treatment options for hyperadrenocorticism in dogs, considering drug mechanisms, patient safety, and long-term follow-up. 
• Describe the clinical features and diagnostic approach to feline hyperaldosteronism and explain its relevance to polyuria and polydipsia. 
• Justify nutritional strategies for patients with endocrine disorders that present with polyuria/polydipsia, including diabetes and hyperadrenocorticism. 

By the end of this module, the learner will be able to: 

• Identify anorexia as a non-specific but clinically significant sign and construct a problem-oriented differential diagnosis list across multiple organ systems. 
• Perform a structured clinical evaluation of the anorexic patient, integrating signalment, history, and physical findings to prioritise diagnostic hypotheses. 
• Describe the pathophysiology and clinical relevance of hepatic lipidosis in cats and develop a management plan. 
• Explain the diagnostic approach and long-term treatment for hypothyroidism in dogs, including common diagnostic pitfalls. 
• Evaluate treatment options for feline hyperthyroidism and describe how comorbidities influence therapeutic decisions. 
• Assess the impact of anorexia in patients with systemic disease, including renal, hepatic, and neoplastic conditions. 
• Justify the use of feeding tubes (NG, NE, or oesophagostomy) in the management of anorexia and outline placement techniques and complication management. 
• Construct an appropriate nutritional plan for anorexic patients, including calculating caloric needs and selecting suitable diets. 
• Identify clinical and laboratory features of anaemia-induced anorexia and integrate this into diagnostic planning. 
• Recognise anorexia as an early sign of systemic deterioration and adjust monitoring and intervention accordingly. 

By the end of this module, the learner will be able to: 

• Formulate a structured diagnostic plan for patients presenting with stranguria, haematuria, dysuria, or urinary incontinence. 
• Identify and differentiate the clinical signs and diagnostic features of common lower urinary tract disorders, including urinary tract infections and feline idiopathic cystitis. 
• Design appropriate diagnostic and management strategies for urolithiasis, including struvite and calcium oxalate stones. 
• Interpret urine culture results and distinguish between contamination, asymptomatic bacteriuria, and true infection. 
• Evaluate the causes and treatment options for urinary incontinence in dogs and cats, including urethral sphincter mechanism incompetence (USMI) and ectopic ureters. 
• Recognise the clinical presentation of canine prostatic disease and formulate a diagnostic and treatment plan. 
• Interpret clinical findings indicative of lower urinary tract neoplasia and propose evidence-based management strategies. 
• Develop an emergency and long-term treatment plan for feline ureteric obstruction. 
• Integrate principles of antimicrobial stewardship when managing recurrent or complicated urinary tract infections. 
• Justify the use of advanced imaging techniques in complex or recurrent cases of lower urinary tract disease. 

By the end of this module, the learner will be able to: 

• Interpret red blood cell morphology and complete blood count data to distinguish between regenerative and non-regenerative anaemia. 
• Recognise the clinical and laboratory features of immune-mediated haemolytic anaemia (IMHA) and formulate a diagnostic and treatment plan. 
• Identify the indications and protocols for blood transfusions in small animals, including cross-matching and transfusion reactions. 
• Differentiate causes of thrombocytopenia and justify appropriate diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. 
• Recognise the signs and diagnostic features of coagulopathies and formulate evidence-based treatment plans. 
• Describe the clinical approach to immune-mediated polyarthritis and thrombocytopenia, including appropriate use of immunosuppressive therapy. 
• Identify key infectious agents that may cause anaemia or jaundice in small animals (e.g., haemoplasma, Ehrlichia, FIP) and propose diagnostic strategies. 
• Develop a structured approach to the diagnosis and management of jaundice, including hepatobiliary and haemolytic differentials. 
• Compare and contrast immunosuppressive medications used in the treatment of immune-mediated diseases, including their mechanisms and side effects. 
• Construct a monitoring and long-term management plan for patients diagnosed with immune-mediated or infectious haematological conditions. 

By the end of this module, the learner will be able to: 

• Construct a differential diagnosis list for abdominal distension based on clinical examination and diagnostic imaging findings. 
• Distinguish between different types of abdominal effusion (transudate, modified transudate, exudate, haemorrhagic, chylous) and integrate them into diagnostic planning. 
• Recognise the clinical presentation and emergency management principles of haemoperitoneum in dogs and cats. 
• Identify the clinical features and develop a stabilisation and treatment plan for gastrointestinal obstruction, including foreign bodies. 
• Formulate a diagnostic and therapeutic plan for dogs and cats with suspected acute pancreatitis, incorporating supportive and nutritional care. 
• Interpret imaging findings (radiography and abdominal ultrasound) in cases of abdominal distension and acute abdomen. 
• Develop emergency triage and fluid resuscitation protocols for patients presenting with shock secondary to abdominal pathology. 
• Evaluate the diagnostic and clinical implications of protein-losing enteropathy (PLE) in dogs and cats presenting with abdominal distension. 
• Recognise the abdominal form of feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) and differentiate it from other causes of effusion. 
• Design appropriate follow-up and monitoring strategies for patients recovering from acute abdominal conditions, integrating imaging and laboratory findings. 

By the end of this module, the learner will be able to: 

• Outline a structured diagnostic approach to the coughing or dyspnoeic dog or cat, incorporating history, physical examination, and imaging. 
• Differentiate between upper airway, lower airway, parenchymal, pleural, and mediastinal respiratory disorders based on clinical and radiographic features. 
• Interpret thoracic radiographs and point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) findings relevant to respiratory disease in dogs and cats. 
• Develop diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for common respiratory conditions including tracheal collapse, feline asthma, and chronic bronchitis. 
• Construct a bronchoalveolar lavage protocol and explain its indications, technique, and limitations. 
• Identify clinical features of pleural space disease and formulate a diagnostic plan to differentiate between effusion types and pneumothorax. 
• Recognise the clinical signs of mediastinal disease and integrate imaging findings into diagnostic reasoning. 
• Formulate an emergency management plan for the dyspnoeic patient, including oxygen therapy and stabilisation techniques. 
• Evaluate infectious causes of respiratory disease, such as canine infectious respiratory disease complex and feline upper respiratory tract infections. 
• Justify antimicrobial use in respiratory disease cases in line with antimicrobial stewardship principles. 

By the end of this module, the learner will be able to: 

• Perform a neurological examination in dogs and cats and interpret deficits to localise the neurological lesion. 
• Evaluate the clinical presentation of a seizuring patient and construct a prioritised differential diagnosis list. 
• Justify diagnostic test selection for patients with seizures or ataxia and interpret results to reach a diagnosis. 
• Formulate an evidence-based treatment plan for status epilepticus, including drug selection, monitoring, and emergency stabilisation. 
• Develop a long-term management plan for patients with epilepsy, considering drug side effects, patient-specific factors, and owner communication. 
• Differentiate between central and peripheral vestibular disease and prioritise diagnostic differentials accordingly. 
• Distinguish seizure from syncope based on history and clinical features and develop an appropriate diagnostic pathway. 
• Recognise infectious and inflammatory diseases that may cause neurological signs in dogs and cats, including toxoplasmosis, cryptococcosis, and FIP. 
• Identify clinical signs and appropriate management strategies for hepatic encephalopathy and describe its relationship to neurological dysfunction. 
• Interpret the clinical features of toxicological neurological presentations and evaluate appropriate treatment options for common toxins. 

By the end of this module, the learner will be able to: 

• Perform fine needle aspiration (FNA) of suspected neoplastic lesions and interpret cytological findings to distinguish between inflammatory and neoplastic processes. 
• Classify cytological patterns (round cell, epithelial, mesenchymal) and evaluate features of malignancy versus benignity. 
• Outline the principles and clinical importance of tumour staging, and justify staging decisions based on case scenarios. 
• Describe the clinical presentation, diagnostic pathway, and treatment considerations for common neoplasms such as mast cell tumours and lymphoma. 
• Design an evidence-based chemotherapy protocol for small animal patients, incorporating drug selection, dosing, side effect management, and monitoring. 
• Recognise safety risks in chemotherapy administration and implement protocols to protect veterinary staff and patients. 
• Interpret clinical signs and diagnostic results supportive of a diagnosis of lower urinary tract neoplasia and outline treatment options. 
• Discuss the role of palliative care and quality-of-life considerations in patients with incurable neoplasia. 
• Evaluate the impact of neoplastic disease on systemic health and integrate supportive care, including nutrition and analgesia. 
• Communicate prognosis and treatment options effectively with pet owners, considering ethical implications and client expectations.

By the end of this module, learners will be able to: 

• Communicate effectively with clients and veterinary team members, adapting their approach to different personality types, emotional contexts, and clinical scenarios. 
• Apply principles of active listening and emotional self-regulation to maintain empathy, clarity, and professionalism during high-pressure consultations. 
• Recognise early signs of occupational stress and burnout, and implement evidence-based strategies to promote personal resilience and wellbeing. 
• Navigate complex or emotionally charged consultations using the Conversational AI simulator, adapting language and tone to improve client understanding and treatment adherence. 
• Reflect on the psychological demands of internal medicine practice and adopt sustainable habits that support long-term emotional health and clinical performance.

Identify and describe the key anatomical landmarks relevant to abdominal and thoracic POCUS in dogs and cats.  Perform focused ultrasound protocols including AFAST, TFAST, and VetBLUE with correct probe positioning and image acquisition.  Recognise sonographic patterns consistent with free fluid, effusion, organomegaly, and common acute pathologies.  Execute safe ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration and abdominocentesis techniques, using proper aseptic protocol and guidance.  Interpret basic ultrasound findings in real time to guide clinical decision-making during emergency or unstable patient evaluations.  Apply POCUS findings to refine differentials and determine when further imaging or referral is warranted.  Troubleshoot common image acquisition artefacts and technical errors in point-of-care settings. 

Safely place nasogastric and nasoesophageal feeding tubes in dogs and cats using appropriate materials and techniques.  Insert and secure an oesophagostomy tube, understanding when this route is indicated over temporary alternatives.  Perform urinary catheterisation and discuss gender-specific technical considerations and complications.  Demonstrate safe placement and maintenance of thoracic and abdominal drains, recognising signs of dysfunction or infection.  Formulate feeding plans and monitoring strategies for patients with assisted feeding tubes, including troubleshooting common complications.  Recognise clinical situations where tube placement can prevent deterioration or support recovery in anorexic or unstable patients.  Apply principles of asepsis, restraint, and patient comfort during all tube and drain procedures. 

Prepare high-quality blood smears and cytology slides from various sample types, ensuring proper labelling, fixation, and staining.  Distinguish key morphological features on blood smears, including red cell abnormalities, white cell changes, and platelet patterns.  Differentiate cytological features of inflammation, infection, and neoplasia in mass aspirates and fluid samples.  Recognise common sampling artefacts and interpretive pitfalls in both blood and cytology slides.  Evaluate the need for further testing (e.g., biopsy, culture) when cytological findings are inconclusive or ambiguous.  Integrate cytological findings with clinical context to guide diagnosis and treatment planning.  Communicate cytological findings clearly in medical records and client discussions, including uncertainty and limitations.